References
1Kareiva P and Levin S. 2002. The Importance of Species: Perspectives on Expendability and Triage. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
2Scheffer M et al. 2009. Early-warning signals for critical transitions. Nature, 461(7260), pp. 53–59. (doi 10.1038/Nature08227)
3UN. 2014. Global Biodiversity Outlook, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (doi: 10.2143/KAR.25.0.504988)
4WWF. 2018. Living Planet Report - 2018: Aiming higher., Environmental Conservation. WWF. (doi: 10.1080/0952882080231file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/LPR2018_Full_Report_Spreads(2).pdf2343)
5IPBES Secretariat. 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Debating Nature’s Value. IPBES Secretariat (doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-99244-0_2)
6Briggs JC. 2017. Emergence of a sixth mass extinction? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. (doi: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx063)
7Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR and Dirzo R. 2017. Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (doi: 10.1073/pnas.1704949114)
8Vitousek PM et al. 1997. Human domination of Earth’s ecosystem. Sciences, 277, pp. 494–499.
9Connell J H and Slatyer R 0. 1977. Mechanisms of Succession in Natural Communities and Their Role in Community Stability and Organization Mechanisms Determining the Sequence of Species, Amer. Natur.
10Pickett STA, Collins SL and Armesto JJ. 1987 Models, mechanisms and pathways of succession, The Botanical Review. (doi: 10.1007/BF02858321)
11Watt, AS. 1947. Pattern and Process in the Plant Community. The Journal of Ecology. (doi: 10.2307/2256497)
12Levin SA and Paine RT. 1974. Disturbance, patch formation, and community structure, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 74, pp. 2744–2747.
13Christensen NL. 1988. Succession and Natural Disturbance: Paradigms, Problems, and Preservation of Natural Ecosystems, Ecosystem management for Parks and Wilderness, University of Washington Press
14Hutchinson GE. 1965. The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play. New Haven: Yale University Press.
15May RM. 1973. Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
16Whittaker RH. 1975. Communities and Ecosystems. Second. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
17Whittaker RH and Levin SA. 1975. Niche: Theory and Application. Benchmark Papers in Ecology/3’. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., p. 448 + xv.
18Levin SA. 1999. Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.
19Paine RT. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity, American Naturalist, 100, pp. 65–75.
20Power ME et al. 1996. Challenges in the search for keystones, Bioscience, 46(8), pp. 609–620.
21Ibid
22Estes JA and Palmisano JF. 1974. Sea otters: Their role in structuring nearshore communities, Sciences, 185, pp. 1058–1060.
23Bond WJ. 1994. Keystone species, in Schulze, E. D. and Mooney, H. A. (eds) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 237–254.
24Carpenter SR and Kitchell JF eds. 1993. The Trophic Cascade in Lakes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25Scheffer M et al. 2012 Anticipating Critical Transitions. Science, 338(6105), pp. 344–348. (Doi 10.1126/Science.1225244)
26Clements FE. 1936. Nature and structure of the climax, Journal of Ecology, 24, pp. 252–284.
27Gleason HA. 1926. The individualistic concept of the plant association, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 53, pp. 1–20.
28Whittaker RH. 1967. Gradient analysis in vegetation, Biological Reviews, 42, pp. 207–264.
29Whittaker RH. 1975. Communities and Ecosystems. Second. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
30Tilman D and Pacala S. 1993. The maintenance of species richness in plant communities, in Ricklefs, RE and Schluter D (eds) Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Geographical Perspectives. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, pp. 13–25.
31Tilman D and Downing JA. 1994. Biodiversity and stability in grasslands, Nature, 367, pp. 363–365.
32Levin SA. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology, Ecology, 73, pp. 1943–1967.
33Paine RT and Vadas RL. 1969. The effects of grazing by sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus spp., On Benthic Algal Populations, Limnology and Oceanography. (doi: 10.4319/lo.1969.14.5.0710)
34Grime JP. 1973. Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation, Nature. (doi: 10.1038/242344a0)
35Connell JH. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs, Science. (doi: 10.1126/science.199.4335.1302)
36Watt AS. 1947. Pattern and Process in the Plant Community, The Journal of Ecology. (doi: 10.2307/2256497)
37Whittaker R H and Levin S A. 1977. The role of mosaic phenomena in natural communities, Theoretical Population Biology, 12(2), pp. 117–139.
38Bormann FH and Likens GE. 1979. Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem. New York: Springer-Verlag.
39Levin S A. 1999. Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.
40Levin SA and Lubchenco J. 2008. Resilience, Robustness, and Marine Ecosystem-based Management, BioScience, 58(1), pp. 27–32.
41Levin SA. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology, Ecology, 73, pp. 1943–1967.
42Thom R. 1969. Topological models in biology, Topology, 8, pp. 313–35.
43Guckenheimer J. 1978. The catastrophe controversy, Math.Int., 1, pp. 15–20.
44Scheffer M. 2009. Critical Transitions in Nature and Society, Princeton University Press, p. 400 pp.
45Grenfell B and Harwood J. 1997. (Meta)population dynamics of infectious diseases, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12, pp. 395–404.
46Levin SA. 1976. Population dynamic models in heterogeneous environments, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 7, pp. 287–311.
47Skellam JG. 1951. Random dispersal in theoretical populations, Biometrika, 38, pp. 196–218.
48Andow DA et al. 1993. Spread of invading organisms: patterns of spread, in Kim KC and McPheron BA (eds) Evolution of Insect Pests: The Pattern of Variations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 219–241.
49Okubo A and Levin SA. 2001. Diffusion and Ecological Problems: Modern Perspectives. Second, Interdisciplinary Applied Mathematics. Second. New York: Springer.
50Mollison D. 1977. Spatial contact models for ecological and epidemic spread (with discussion), Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, 39, pp. 283–326.
51Durrett R and Levin S. 1994. The importance of being discrete (and spatial), Theoretical Population Biology, 46, pp. 363–394.
52Mollison D and Levin SA. 1995. Spatial dynamics of parasitism, in Grenfell BT and Dobson AP (eds) Ecology of Infectious Diseases in Natural Populations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 384–398.
53Durrett R. 1999. Stochastic spatial models, SIAM Review, 41(4).
54Staver AC, Archibald S and Levin S. 2011. Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: Rainfall and fire constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states, Ecology, 92(5), pp. 1063–1072.
55Staver AC, Archibald S and Levin SA. 2011. The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states, Sciences. 2011/10/15, 334(6053), pp. 230–232. doi: 10.1126/science.1210465.
56Holdridge LR. 1947. Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data, Sciences, 105, pp. 367–368.
57Whittaker RH. 1970. Communities and Ecosystems. First. New York: Macmillan Company
58Skellam JG. 1951. Random dispersal in theoretical populations, Biometrika, 38, pp. 196–218.
59Li Q et al. 2019. Spatial feedbacks and the dynamics of savanna and forest, Theoretical Ecology. (doi: 10.1007/s12080-019-0428-1)
60Lloyd WF. 1833. Two Lectures on the Checks to Population. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, England.
61Hardin G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons, Sciences, 162, pp. 1243–1248.
62Ostrom E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
63Levin SA. 2014. Public goods in relation to competition, cooperation, and spite, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, pp. 10838–10845.
64Desouza KC, Hess C and Ostrom E. 2008. Understanding knowledge as a commons: From theory to practice, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59(2), pp. 333–334. (doi: 10.1002/Asi.20747)
65Webb C. 2003. A complete classification of Darwinian extinction in ecological interactions, American Naturalist. (doi: 10.1086/345858)
66Ratzke C, Denk J and Gore J. 2018. Ecological suicide in microbes, Nature Ecology and Evolution. (doi: 10.1038/s41559-018-0535-1)
67Sustainable Development Goals. See https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ (accessed 30 October 2020).
68Dasgupta P, Levin S and Lubchenco J. 2000. Economic pathways to ecological sustainability, BioScience. BioOne, 50(4), pp. 339–345. Available at: http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-
69Ostrom E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
70Olson M. No date. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
71Levin SA. 2006. Learning to live in a global commons: socioeconomic challenges for a sustainable environment, Ecological Research, 21(3), pp. 328–333. (doi: 10.1007/S11284-006-0162-1)
72Levin SA. 2014. Public goods in relation to competition, cooperation, and spite, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, pp. 10838–10845.
73Barrett S. 2007. Why Cooperate?: The Incentive to Supply Global Public Goods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
74Barrett S. and Dannenberg A. 2014. Sensitivity of collective action to uncertainty about climate tipping points, Nature Climate Change. (doi: 10.1038/nclimate2059)
75Dixit, A. 2009. ‘Governance Institutions and Economic Activity’, American Economic Review, 99(1), pp. 5–24.
76Dixit A. and SAL. 2017. Social creation of pro-social preferences, in The Theory of Externalities and Pubic Goods, pp. 127–143.
77Nyborg K et al. 2016. Social norms as solutions, Science, pp. 42–43. (doi: 10.1126/science.aaf8317)