Cyborg futures - the challenge of implanting and integrating artificial muscle

09 - 10 June 2025 09:00 - 17:00 The Royal Society Free Watch online
Register now

Discussion meeting organised by Professor Jonathan Rossiter, Dr Nazia Mehrban, Professor Martin Birchall, Dr Majid Taghavi, Professor Dario Farina, Dame Molly Stevens FRS FREng, and Dr Eleftheria Iliadou.

This meeting will be the first to address the scientific and social challenges of cyber-physical enhancement, robotic body restoration and implantable artificial muscles. The event brings together world-leading researchers and innovators to explore a cyborg future, with leading presentations and deep discussions in smart materials, implantable artificial muscles, neurointerfacing, soft robots, surgical implantation, biointerfaces, biomaterials, ethics and more.

Programme

The programme, including speaker biographies and abstracts, will be available soon. Please note the programme may be subject to change.

Poster session

There will be a poster session from 17:00 on Monday 9 June 2025. If you would like to present a poster, please submit your proposed title, abstract (up to 200 words), author list, and the name of the proposed presenter and institution no later than 11 May 2025. Submissions made after this date may not be included in the programme booklet.

Attending the event

This event is intended for researchers in relevant fields

  • Free to attend
  • Both virtual and in-person attendance is available. Advance registration is essential. Please follow the link to register
  • Free lunch is available to all attendees on both days of the meeting

Enquiries: Scientific Programmes team.

Image credit: ©️iStock/ChrisChrisW

Schedule

Chair

Professor Wenhui Song, University College London, UK

Professor Wenhui Song

University College London, UK

09:00-09:05 Welcome by the Royal Society and lead organiser
09:05-09:15 Cyborg futures - engineering implantable artificial muscles

A future where people with disabilities and older people are restored to mobility and health through implantable muscles is very attractive, but faces huge challenges in technology, implantation, control and acceptance. Here we will review the latest progress in fundamental artificial muscle technologies for function restoration developed on the emPOWER project and at the University of Bristol's SoftLab. These include field-driven electrogels, liquid-metal self-oscillating fluid networks and functional hydrogels.

Professor Jonathan Rossiter

Professor Jonathan Rossiter

University of Bristol, UK

09:15-09:45 Incorporating artificial muscles into devices and testbeds

My research is focused on device-enabled approaches to assist or augment dynamic tissue through active assistance and delivery of biological therapy. This talk will focus on representative implantable devices that we have worked on, each addressing an identified shortcoming of existing technologies. I will also discuss high fidelity organosynthetic testbeds incorporating artificial muscles designed to validate and interrogate device performance before advancing to in vivo studies.

Professor Ellen Roche

Professor Ellen Roche

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

09:45-10:15 From heart pump to face reconstruction: success and challenges in soft actuator implants

Whenever something moves in the human body, our muscles do the work. However, while today it part of everyday clinical practice to replace joints and bones with artificial parts, reconstruction medicine still has great difficulties finding a suitable replacement for damaged or destroyed muscles. There is one muscle in particular whose function is vital and is the subject of several studies, but without convincing results: the heart. Other muscles of the body actually share mechanical similarities with the heart, including the urinal sphincter muscle, which, if damaged, can cause urinary incontinence. Facial muscles also share such similarities and must be replaced after an accident or injury. Although these muscles do not play a vital role in the body, they remain extremely important for patients' quality of life, for example a well-functioning sphincter muscle is critical in order to avoid unpleasant side effects such as needing to wear diapers. The parallels between muscle types could allow the development of universal electroactive multifunctional actuators. Within the Centre for Artificial Muscles (CAM), EPFL, in cooperation with its partners in heart surgery, face reconstruction and urology - University of Bern and Reconstructive Medicine - University of Zürich, aims to become the world's leading reference for the development and clinical transfer of a brand new technological approach for artificial muscles in the human body. The proposed keynote intends to show some examples realised in this new centre.

Dr Yves Perriard

Dr Yves Perriard

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland

10:15-10:45 Advancing Biohybrid Robotics with Living Muscle

While synthetic actuators have enabled impressive robotic capabilities, they still fall short in replicating the adaptability, compliance, and energy efficiency of biological muscle. Biohybrid Robotics (BHR), which merges living tissues with artificial structures, offers a fundamentally different approach—one that reconstructs biological functions to both advance robotics and deepen our understanding of life. In this talk, I will introduce our recent advances in biohybrid muscle actuators using cultured skeletal muscle tissues. We have developed a range of architectures—including ring-shaped actuators, sushi-roll–style bundled constructs (MuMuTAs), and other multi-muscle configurations—that are optimized for different robotic functions such as walking, grasping, or slithering. These living actuators demonstrate high contractile force, modularity, and responsiveness to electrical stimulation, enabling novel types of soft robotic motion. Importantly, BHR is not merely a tool for engineering new machines; it is also a constructive approach to understanding biological mechanisms, such as coordination, force generation, and adaptability. By reconstituting these capabilities in engineered systems, we can explore principles that underlie neuromuscular control and tissue dynamics. The potential applications of biohybrid actuators are wide-ranging, from medical devices and drug testing platforms to environmental sensing and even cultured meat production. These possibilities position BHR as a key platform for shaping a cyborg future—one where biological and artificial systems merge in robotics, medicine, and beyond.

Professor Shoji Takeuchi

Professor Shoji Takeuchi

University of Tokyo, Japan

10:45-11:15 Break
11:15-11:45 Soft microfabricated electrodes: expanding possibilities in neuroprosthetics and neural research (online)

Soft microfabricated electrodes are unlocking new possibilities in neural engineering by providing adaptable, biocompatible interfaces that seamlessly integrate with biological tissues. This talk explores recent advancements in these electrodes, focusing on two key applications: auditory prostheses and brain organoid research. In auditory systems, soft, multichannel implants are especially suited for conforming to the complex, curved surface of the cochlear nucleus, enabling precise simulation for patients who are not candidates for traditional cochlear implants. In brain organoid research, innovative electrode designs such as stretchable MEAs and the self-actuating "e-Flower" electrode provide high-resolution recordings of neural activity, even under mechanical strain. These applications highlight the transformative potential of soft electrodes to bridge the gap between engineered devices and complex neural systems, advancing both clinical therapies and fundamental neuroscience.

Stéphanie Lacour

Stéphanie Lacour

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland

11:45-12:30 Panel discussion

Chair

Nazia Mehrban

Dr Nazia Mehrban

University of Bath, UK

13:30-13:45 Separation of Neural Drives to Muscles from Transferred Polyfunctional Nerves Using Implanted Micro-Electrode Arrays
Professor Dario Farina

Professor Dario Farina

Imperial College London, UK

13:45-14:15 Interfaces with the peripheral nervous system: a possible route to the direct control of artificial muscles and the delivery of sensory feedback

Neural interfaces are most common in the CNS and have been used successfully to record and decode kinetic and kinematic movement intention at the macro scale for the control of upper-limb prostheses or robotic devices. However, the PNS offers micro scale access to the efferent and afferent pathways that innervate groups of muscles or sometimes single muscles, thus providing possible control inputs at the single muscle level. This talk will cover extra-neural and intra-neural PNS electrode designs, signal processing algorithms for decoding efferent information, stimulation approaches for somatosensory feedback, and the use of animal and human models for interface design and development. The goal is to show how PNS interfaces can provide muscle-specific efferent and afferent interfacing using technologies that are minimally invasive.

Dr Ben Metcalfe

Dr Ben Metcalfe

University of Bath

14:15-14:45 Developing a Sensory Representation of an Extra Robotic Body Part

Effective motor control depends on somatosensory feedback, yet artificial limbs are typically thought to lack this essential input. We explored whether the physical interaction of a wearable robotic device with the body could generate usable, natural sensory signals—sufficient to support a distinct neural and perceptual representation. Using the Third Thumb, a robotic augmentation of the hand, we compared natural tactile feedback with state-of-the-art artificial sensory systems. In material discrimination tasks, participants performed as well (or even better) with natural feedback, indicating it can be intuitive and functionally rich.

To assess neural integration, we used fMRI to examine somatosensory cortex (S1) activity. Even with limited experience, the brain organised the Thumb’s tactile input in a topographic map and distinct from the palm. After a week of coordinated use, this representation became more finger-like, paralleling increased reports of embodiment. These findings suggest natural, physically mediated signals can foster the emergence of a sensory representation for robotic body parts—supporting their functional and experiential integration.

Professor Tamar Makin

Professor Tamar Makin

University of Cambridge, UK

14:45-15:15 Interfacing with the spinal cord: A pathway for restoring mobility after paralysis

Neural conditions such as spinal cord injury often result in the disruption of functions below the level of injury, including the loss of the ability to stand and walk. Neuroprosthetic approaches focused on activating peripheral nerves and muscles for restoring standing after paralysis have been successful; however, their use for restoring walking has been met with various challenges. These include the need for widespread implantation of electrodes and the control of numerous muscles that exhibit varying contractile and fatigue profiles. To address these challenges, we developed micro-implants that directly activate locomotor-related networks in the lumbar region of the spinal cord through intraspinal microstimulation (ISMS). With ISMS were are able to generate graded single joint movements and multi-joint synergies resulting in walking distances upwards of 1km in pre-clinical models. Our focus now is on developing translational versions of the spinal micro-implants and testing them in a pre-clinical model with spine and spinal cord dimensions and morphologies similar to those in humans.

Professor Vivian Mushahwar FAIMBE FCAHS

Professor Vivian Mushahwar FAIMBE FCAHS

University of Alberta, Canada

15:15-15:45 Break
15:45-16:15 Muscles to embody uncertainty, optimally interact with the environment and extract information from it

In this talk, I will present how humans control their muscles to interact optimally with their environment and how implementing these principles can create versatile artificial muscle systems. Human muscles function as soft actuators with tunable spring-like properties, allowing for adaptive energy exchange, maximal sensory extraction, and compensation for stable, unstable, or uncertain dynamics. By modelling and implementing these adaptive mechanisms, we have developed robotic systems that advance flexible industrial automation, teleoperation, and intuitive, efficient human-robot interaction.

Professor Etienne Burdet

Professor Etienne Burdet

University College London, UK

16:15-17:00 Panel discussion
Dr Martin Garrard

Dr Martin Garrard

University of Bristol, UK

17:00-18:15 Poster session

Chair

Nazia Mehrban

Dr Nazia Mehrban

University of Bath, UK

09:00-09:15 Designing biomaterials for regenerative medicine and soft robotics

This talk will provide an overview of our recent developments in bioinspired materials for applications in regenerative medicine with focus on establishing translational pipelines to bring our innovations to the clinic. Our group has developed fabrication methods to engineer complex 3D architectures that mimic anisotropic and multiscale tissue structures and generate spatially arranged bioinstructive biochemical cues. I will discuss recent advances in our tunable nanoneedle arrays for multiplexed intracellular biosensing at sub-cellular resolution and modulation of biological processes. We are developing creative solutions for targeted and controlled delivery using soft robotics and nanotherapeutics with unique bioinspired characteristics that respond to external stimuli to release a payload. Our design approach keeps state-of-the-art fabrication approaches while keeping in mind versatility and scalability to maximise the application potential. Finally, I will explore how these versatile technologies can be applied to transformative biomedical innovations and will discuss our efforts in establishing effective translational pipelines to drive our innovations to clinical application while actively engaging in efforts towards the democratisation of healthcare.

Professor Dame Molly Stevens DBE FRS FREng

Professor Dame Molly Stevens DBE FRS FREng

University of Oxford

09:15-09:45 Biologic interactions of biosynthetic and biologic scaffolds and their effect on the constructive tissue remodelling

The purpose of the talk is to provide an overview on how polymeric biomaterials, and particularly their degradations products, elicit differential responses by the immune cells at the biomaterial-tissue interface. Focusing on the biosynthetic surgical mesh composed of poly (4-hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB), a biomaterial widely used in the biomedical field for hernia repair applications, which has been associated with improved long-term remodelling response and decreased surgical site infection in pre-clinical and clinical studies. In our research, we have identified that 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB), the main degradation product of P4HB and a short chain fatty acid (SCFA), endogenously secreted in the body, promotes a pro-remodelling, regulatory phenotype of macrophages, which partially contribute to the promotion of site appropriate tissue remodelling. Moreover, through our research it was found that 4HB increased the expression of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) in these macrophages. These studies provided insights on the associated molecular mechanism. It was identified that the mechanisms of AMP secretion are independent of a direct HDAC inhibitory activity, commonly associated with SCFA. Instead, it involves the transcriptional activation of cathelicidin LL-37 through MAP-kinase and NF-KB pathways. Key proteins identified in the transcriptional activation process were GPR109a, JNK, P38, NF-KB, and AP-1. The results of this work expand the understanding of the biologic activity of 4HB in immune system cells and demonstrate its potential to promote a constructive tissue remodelling effect for regenerative medicine applications.

Professor Catalina Pineda Molina

Professor Catalina Pineda Molina

University of Pittsburgh, USA

09:45-10:15 Forward Engineering of Multi-cellular Living Biological Machines

The integration of living cells with 3D printed soft scaffolds can enable the realization of multi-cellular machines for a range of applications in engineering and medicine. We will review our group’s efforts and present recent results towards developing such centimeter scale biological machines that are actuated by skeletal muscles cells. These machines are controlled via electrical or optogenetic signals and demonstrate improved healing after a damage when exercised via optical stimulation. We have developed approaches for uni- and bidirectional movement and steering, and most recently are also working to integrate neural control in these biological machines. Using stem cells, a fibrin matrix, and 3D printed molds, we are able to form functional in vitro neural tissue mimic of different shapes, which can eventually be integrated in the walking machines. As these cellular machines increase in capabilities, exhibit emergent behavior, and potentially reveal the ability for self-assembly and self-repair, important questions can also arise about the ethical implications for this direction of research, which are very important to consider and address. These cellular systems present many opportunities in the next decade and beyond with potential applications in drug delivery, power generation, and other biomimetic systems.

Professor Rashid Bashir

Professor Rashid Bashir

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

10:15-10:45 Advancing the biofabrication of tissue building blocks

The seamless integration of biological and engineered components is essential for ensuring the functionality of artificial muscles. Engineered tissues hold great promised in facilitating the integration. Functional tissue building blocks, in particular, will allow the introduction of multiple functionalities into engineered tissues, further enhancing the integration of both biological and engineering components.

Our research focuses on developing innovative biofabrication strategies to create functional tissue building blocks and exploring their potential to support the functionality of engineered tissues.

In this presentation, I will present our work on microfluidic platforms for generating microvessel templates that guide a vascular integration within engineered tissues both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, I will discuss how we leverage 3D printing, combined with magnetic control to fabricate thin-layered bioscaffolds and how these bioscaffolds facilitate the creation of 3D vascular networks and 3D biohybrid actuators. Furthermore, I will talk about the generation of magnetically responsive, cell-laden microgels with smart assembly and motion abilities and discuss their potential for dynamic, minimally invasive tissue delivery and interfacing.

We believe these biofabricated building blocks provide promising strategies in supporting the implantation, (neuro)vascular integration, and muscular control capabilities of engineered tissues, and will contributed to the development of functional systems for enhanced muscular restoration.

Dr Ruoxiao Xie

Dr Ruoxiao Xie

University of Liverpool, UK

10:45-11:15 Break
11:15-11:45 Cyber-Physical Enhancement of Therapeutic Cells and Tissues for the Clinic

Regenerative medicine principles are based on the ability of cells to regenerate and grow tissues in vitro and in vivo. Engineering provides the platforms and tools which enable the control and manufacture of cells used for clinical therapy and regenerative organ models.  The interaction of biological and physical factors play a key role in providing the stem cell niche which is capable of rebuilding tissue complexity both in vitro and in vivo.

One aspect of this is how to design platforms which can remotely control and integrate cells as a therapeutic; which can be used routinely within a hospital environment. Exogenous cell delivery or endogenous recruitment provide stem cell sources which require instructive delivery systems. We have developed multiple remote control platforms using magnetic nanotechnology approaches which can be aligned with advanced cell-based therapies. The challenge lies in engineering mechanical control solutions for stem cells which have clinical relevance. We are currently translating these approaches to the clinic.

Professor Alicia El Haj FREng

Professor Alicia El Haj FREng

University of Birmingham, UK

11:45-12:30 Panel discussion
Dr Majid Taghavi

Dr Majid Taghavi

Imperial College London, UK

13:30-13:45 Labs, animals and people: negotiating the road to implantable robots
Professor Martin Birchall FMedSci

Professor Martin Birchall FMedSci

University College London, UK

13:45-14:15 Ethical empowerment? Ethical aspects of the design, development and deployment of implantable artificial muscles

According to the opening credits to the 1970s science fiction TV series, The Six Million Dollar Man, cyborg technologies promise to make us “better – stronger – faster”. Such technologies are, of course, no longer the preserve of science fiction, they are science fact. Developments like implantable artificial muscles (IAMs) certainly seem to promise much to, and for, patients – and potentially others. At the same time, however, there are various ethical issues to consider when designing, developing, and deploying IAMs. Based on a narrative review undertaken as part of the emPOWER project, this presentation outlines some of the key issues, which concern: (a) serving the public interest, which includes considerations of public support, access and distribution, as well as responsibility and accountability; (b) balancing benefits and harms to not only recipients of IAMs, but also others; and (c) respect for autonomy (or self-rule), including questions of consent and confidentiality. Although future research could usefully hear more from those involved in, or likely to be affected by the development of IAMs, there is, prima facie, an ethical case for their development. But, when seeking to deliver on their promise, we should also take care to avoid and address the possible, plausible, or probable perils they might also present.

Professor Richard Huxtable

Professor Richard Huxtable

University of Bristol

14:15-14:45 Title to be confirmed
Mr Paolo De Coppi

Mr Paolo De Coppi

Great Ormond Street Hospital, UK

14:45-15:15 Translating Cyborg Futures into Present Practice: Building regulatory and commercialisation strategies

Developing innovative ‘Cyborg’ medical technologies in the laboratory with the potential to act as artificial muscles is of itself highly complex. Successful progression of those inventions from the benchtop to eventual adoption into clinical practice requires multiple challenges to be overcome en route. A critical aspect is that neuro-integrated implantable devices are classified as presenting the highest level of safety risk in the risk spectrum of medical technologies. This talk will introduce the importance of early consideration of regulatory and commercialisation strategies in the journey of these medical technologies to market access. It will draw on practical examples from non-implantable neuro-tech therapies to highlight some of the regulatory challenges and how they can be overcome, such as through the application of key standards. Future regulatory frameworks may be viewed as irrelevant to those undertaking fundamental research, however research funders, such as the UK Research & Innovation (UKRI), are increasingly expecting ‘realisable’ outputs of research i.e. ones that have potential to be put into practice and deliver real-world impact. The purpose of this talk is to emphasise the interactions between regulatory and commercialisation strategies with the aim of de-risking health technology research. Through such early de-risking, the likelihood of research translating into realisable outputs to benefit the ‘health and wealth’ of the nation increases.

Dr Avril McCarthy

Dr Avril McCarthy

Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, UK

15:15-15:45 Break
15:45-16:15 Implants for the gastrointestinal tract. Towards Resilient and Responsive Medical Devices

The development of next-generation medical devices demands systems that are not only intelligent and functional, but also resilient, adaptive, and seamlessly integrated with the human body. This talk presents a robotics-viewed roadmap toward such capabilities through three core technological strategies.

In-the-body Residential Devices: We explore the concept of robotic implants designed for long-term in vivo presence, capable of delivering continuous therapy and monitoring. These systems must navigate biological complexity while maintaining mechanical and functional integrity over extended periods.

Resilient Devices: A central challenge in implantable and wearable technology is fault tolerance. We introduce approaches to designing devices with passive resilience, mechanisms that enable function-preserving responses to structural damage or environmental variation without relying solely on active control systems.

Bio-artificial Interfaces: Finally, we address the need for interfaces that are both tissue-responsive and energy-efficient. We present emerging bio-hybrid sensors and actuators that can communicate bidirectionally with biological systems, while operating within minimal power constraints.

These themes point towards a new generation of bio-integrated devices that can survive, adapt, and interact more intelligently with the human body, opening new possibilities for chronic care, precision therapy, and biological augmentation.

Dr Dana Damian

Dr Dana Damian

University of Sheffield, UK

16:15-17:00 Panel discussion
Professor Marcus Drake

Professor Marcus Drake

Imperial College London